Attentional Bias In Alcohol Drinkers Psychology Essay

Attentional Bias In Alcohol Drinkers Psychology Essay Attentional Bias refers to the term not allowing one to examine all possible outcomes when judging about an association. Previous research stems from the famous â€Å"Stroop effect† that was discovered in 1930 by J.Ridley Stroop. This was an experimental effect in which he discovered that the individuals cognitive processing ability was very powerful. In other words ‘The Stroop effect (Stroop, 1935) is a prime example of the human failure to attend selectively to a particular aspect of a complex stimulus (Algom, D., Chajut, E., Lev, S. (2004). Since most researchers are interested in finding out things, the logical next step would be to develop further on and ask whether this actual delay in reaction time is due to moderate drinkers compared to light drinkers. In order to test the effectiveness of this Stroop effect, one uses the colour words example. By this, we mean words that are written using same coloured ink i.e. red written in red ink, and words written in differ ent coloured ink i.e. red written in blue. The participants are asked to read the words and not the colour. This sounds easier to do than it actually is. In this study the methodology and the affects of the Stroop test will be critically evaluated. To achieve this, previous research and literature will be drawn upon. A study of Duka and Townshend (2001) demonstrated attentional bias associated with alcohol cues: differences between heavy and occasional social drinkers, they used a dot probe (alcohol-related pictures and words) and questionnaires, and the aim was to examine whether non-dependent heavy drinkers would differ in their selective attention towards alcohol-related stimuli compared to social drinkers, the results showed attentional bias amongst the heavy drinkers in relation to alcohol-related stimuli, scores in factors such as sociability and sexuality shown to also be high, but low on personality and persistence. A further study of Duka and Townshend (2004) demonstrated the priming effect of alcohol pre-load on attentional bias to alcohol-related stimuli; they used a dot probe and questionnaires, and the aim of this study was to examine whether attentional bias towards alcohol-related stimuli wound increase after priming with either one or two doses of alcohol/placebo, the results on mood ratings showed dose dependent increased in positive mood radar after alcohol pre-load, and in the dot probe task, all participants showed attentional bias towards the alcohol-related stimuli, and the neutral bias was only positive at low alcohol dosage. A study of Sharma, Albery, and Cook (2001) demonstrated selective attentional bias to alcohol-related stimuli in problem drinkers and non-problem drinkers; they used a modified Stroop task (computerized), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory in order to measure Anxiety, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) to allow scoring (high or low), the participants were divided into three groups: local community alcohol service (CAS), student volunteers who were divided into two control groups, the aim of this study was to examine whether patient of problem drinkers selectively attend to alcohol-related stimuli compare to the two control groups of non-problem drinkers, the results indicate significance amongst the CAS group in longer reaction times in responding to colour of alcohol-related words compared to neutral words, with reduced interference for the high AUDIT group, therefore significant; in the low AUDIT group no significance was found. Additionally, no evidence is provi ded in the interference habituated amongst the three groups. A study of Stetter, Ackermann, Scherer, Schmid, Straube, and Mann (1994) demonstrated whether alcoholics develop an information processing bias towards disease-related stimuli, the results indicated an increase of error amongst alcoholics when presented with the disease-related stimuli compared to the neutral conditions, and controls. A further study Stetter, Ackemann, Bizer, Straube, and Mann (1995) by testing their hypothesis that alcoholics develop a disease-related attentional bias, with 40 male alcohol-dependent, and 40 male healthy, and used the Stroop colour-naming task, the results showed alcoholic inpatients performed significantly poorer than the control group under the critical experimental condition (colour-naming of disease-related words), as compared with the non-critical condition (colour-naming of neutral words; p = 0.03), no effects were found on the reaction times. A study of Johnsen, Laberg, Cox, Vaksdal, and Hugdahl, (1994) conducted in Norway demonstrated attentional bias in the processing of alcohol-related words on alcoholic subjects, using the Stroop colour and word test, the results indicate the alcoholics respond slowly on all categories, more so on alcohol-related words compared to the control group, and both groups responded slowly to colour interfering words than neutral words, the findings suggests that the alcoholic subjects allocated their attention to alcohol-related words, therefore allowing their cognitive processes take over making it impossible to ignore the alcohol-related words. Method Participants The participants were recruited the students at London South Bank University. There will be 170 participants in total, 34 males (17-moderate and 14-light drinkers) and 139 females (68 moderate and 71-light drinkers), and all the participants were adults aged 18years plus. Apparatus All participants were asked to complete the tasks on a computer (PC), and the same apparatus was used to store data, and later analyse the data collected. Design The Stroop task method is used and the two-way ANOVA test will be used to analyse data (2 X 2 Mixed subject design). There are two independent variables i) Group (light vs. moderate alcohol drinkers) ii) Word Type (neutral vs. alcohol-related words), and the dependent variable is the reaction time to identifying the colour the word is presented in. In order to verify differences that may occur, the between group and within group will be looked at in more depth. Procedure In this study, the following was explained. Each participant was asked to follow the instructions provided on the screen. Labels were placed on the buttons on the keyboard for each subject to make their responses. There are two set type of words (alcohol-related words and neutral words). The participants were required to complete a serious of trials in responding to the colour of the ink that the word is written in (BLUE, RED, YELLOW, and GREEN) and (VODKIA, J.DANIELS, GIN, and BEER) rather than word. Part of the instruction was that they must complete each trail as quickly and accurately as possible, as their reaction time would be recorded Results The results of the 2 x 2 ANOVA was used to analyse the data. The effects of word type (alcohol-related words and neutral words) f = (1,168) 140.16, p = (moderate drinkers and light drinkers) f = (1,168) 26.68, p = . Neutral Word Alcohol Word Main Effect of Drinking Type Light 840.00 mean score (34.28) sd 870.52 mean score (28.51) sd 855.26 mean score (31.66) sd Moderate 849.91 mean score (28.86) sd 892.67 mean score (21.26) sd 871.29 mean score (24.73) sd Main Effect of Word Type 845.01 mean score (31.95) sd 881.73 mean score (27.39) sd Discussion For this study the hypotheses do support, in other words significance was found. The literature of the prior studies using the Stroop paradigm with alcohol-related stimuli has a number of fundamental methodological problems. According to Sharma, Albery, and Cook (2001) the first problem identified is that the multitude of different variables that could potentially be manipulated giving a totally different set of results. It therefore becomes apparent that one needs to be very clear on exactly what the variables are and what exactly the researcher wants to achieve. Another problem identified is that of the actual format administered. Again, many issues may arise regarding the way in which the test is formatted. If the format is changed, will the result change along with it? As more development is completed in this area of study on alcohol addiction, the researcher no doubt will see that, the variables and the modes of administration discussed above will have a huge effect on the study. For example, one set of results could construct stronger effects than others, and that the other probable central variables make no difference at all to the outcome. The researcher should also take into account that however, a task is administered to the participants is bound to have both advantages and disadvantages, and can be improved upon. This does not mean that one way is better than the other. It just means that the researcher needs to be aware of this and choose a methodology that best works for them. Choosing the correct methodology in any study therefore can be just as important as the actual study itself. What becomes apparent is that there is no particular way of carrying out a study. Either way studies will carry certain advantages and disadvantages. One particular study related to our discussion was the single-word presentation of the Stroop stimuli. In this case, the stimuli were given in card format. One card had all the needed stimuli for alcohol -related words while the other had neutral words. The time taken by each subject to colour name the words on the first card compared to the second was recorded. In other words, recorded reaction time. This format, although used on many studies, comes with its limitations. Evidence obtained concludes that it is difficult to accurately measure the response time by the individuals and that the process evolved is very time consuming and involves a lot of calculations. In other words this type of format may be seen as being time consuming and tedious for the researcher to carry out. Its not all bad however, the card format can have an advantage in that it ‘produces stronger interference effects (e.g. McNally, Amir and Lipke, 1996; Williams et al., 1996), presumably because it provi des a semantic network of words in a given category (Sharma, et al 2001). In addition, the individuals words recorded in terms of its reaction time are not used with any presentation mode, as each participants reaction times to each category of stimuli are averaged prior to statistical analysis. Other objections to the use of card presented stimuli were that the total time measured included both correct and incorrect responses. Previous research shows that the amount of trials where errors occurred is in fact rare and equivalent for different categories of stimuli. Furthermore, studies by Stetter et al also seem to agree. His study shows that card format stimuli does not allow for the measurement of time-cause of alcohol attentional bias. For instance, with these card presentations one would not know if the strongest bias occurred for alcohol words presented earlier and then the bias attenuated. An attempt to rectify this issue was to assess participants habituation to the stimuli across time. This was achieved by observing how reaction times to the alcohol and neutral stimuli changed during the course of the experiment. In relation to Johnsen et al studies, it was criticized in many aspects such as, the word types not being matched on the frequency. Additionally being assured in using two words alcohol-related words, for example ‘liquor store; ‘red wine. (Sharma, et al 2001).However, Johnsen et al stated clearly that since the studies were carried out in Norway, the words were obviously translated in Norwegian ‘vinmonopol = liquor store, and ‘rodvin = red wine, and as you can see, when translated its single words. Further criticisms were put forward to why the participants were asked to press the key response button; and call out the name of the colour. Sharma et al study contained a number of problems. Firstly, the neutral words were long to a given category (environmental features), which affects the reaction times. Secondly, the number of neutral words being associated closely to the four ink colours (e.g. blue, red, brown, green), also how these colours were closely link ed to the words (e.g. blue sky, green grass). Also concerns were put forward on the manner of design (e.g. low, middle, and high) drinking groups. Lastly, problems occurred with the problem drinkers, who may have resolved their alcohol problems being placed amongst the heavier drinkers. To conclude, there are two opposing thoughts with the methodology used; one that the Stroop paradigm is highly objective, valid and reliable, and the other that some are not worthy of inclusion. Many researchers are continuing to offer theoretical explanations to account for the Stroop paradigm, and still trying to make sense on how it could be adapted to be more advanced in being improved. References Algom, D., Chajut, E., Lev, S. (2004). JourA Rational Look at the Emotional Stroop Phenomenon: A Generic Slowdown, Not a Stroop Effect. nal of Experimental Psychology General. 133 (3), 323-338. Duka, T., Townshend, J. M. (2004). The priming effect of alcohol pre-load on attentional bias to alcohol-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology. 176 (3), 353. Johnsen, B. H., Laberg, J. C., Cox, W. M., Vaksdal, A. (1994). Alcoholic Subjects Attentional Bias in the Processing of Alcohol-Related Words. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors : Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors. 8 (2), 111. Sharma, D., Albery, I., Cook, C. (2001). Selective attentional bias to alcohol related stimuli in problem drinkers and non-problem drinkers. Addiction. 96 (2), 285-295. Sharma, D., Albery, I.P., Cook, C. (2001) .Selective attentional bias to alcohol- related stimuli in problem drinkers and non-problem drinkers, Addiction, 96, 1261-1265. Stetter F, Ackermann K, Scherer E, Schmid H, Straube ER, Mann K. (1994). Distraction resulting from disease related words in alcohol-dependent inpatients: a controlled dichotic listening study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 244 (4), 223-5. Stetter F, Ackermann K, Bizer A, Straube ER, Mann K. (1995). Effects of disease-related cues in alcoholic inpatients: results of a controlled Alcohol Stroop study. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research. 19 (3), 593-9. Townshend, J. M., Duka, T. (2001). Attentional bias associated with alcohol cues: differences between heavy and occasional social drinkers. Psychopharmacology. 157 (1), 67.

Learning from the Homeless Essay -- Personal Narrative Essay Example

It began in the County Mall food court. Resting at one of the tables after my lunch, I casually glanced around the place. The food court wasn't crowded, and consequently I had no trouble spotting him: a tall, dark, gray-haired man. He caught my gaze, and started walking towards me. As I took in his gaunt frame, his tattered red t-shirt, and the holes in his great sweats, it dawned on me that before me stood a homeless man. Reaching my table, he asked if he could sit down with me but I declined. I wasn't in the mood to talk to him, and so mumbling a poor excuse and an apology that was probably a few octaves below any decipherable level, and not particularly caring whether the man heard me or not, I got up and walked away. The man called out after me, assuring me that he didn't want money, but rather only someone to talk to. I was rattled by his persistence, and pretending I didn't hear him I quickly walked away, my heart pounding in my chest.    Later that day the incident gnawed on my mind; that I coldly turned down a man who simply wanted someone to talk to was uncharacteristic and appalled me. As I lay awake that night, listening to the rain beat against my roof, my thoughts drifted back to the man at the mall. Was he outside in this rain right now? Was he cold, wet, and hungry? Was he lonely? The thought of him feeling abandoned because of me weighed even more heavily on my conscience. In my first year of high school I suffered through a terrible ordeal that distanced me from my friends for some time. I am familiar with the despair that arises from loneliness, and it made my guilt all the more acute. As I lay in bed, I felt frustrated and angry with myself for acting so callously.    I was eager to ... ...change from the torpid state I found him in and I was elated by the transformation.    Since the mall incident my time with the homeless have widened my eyes considerably. I learned about panhandling, canning routes, and day labors.   I learned about the depression and loneliness that plagues many of the homeless. When I glance upon the effusive joy they derive from STATH's help, I get an idea as to how scathing my rejection might have been to the homeless at the mall. If only I could live the day over -It's a thought I've entertained on many occasions. I fear that in my callousness I have driven the man into a deep despair at the thought that no one wants to spend their time with him. Every time I adopt another homeless on one of STATH's excursions, I relive the incident at the mall. Only now, I take solace in the fact that I make the right decision.

Essay --

January 3, 2014 Dan Maffucci 50 Words Book: Me Talk Pretty One Day Maniacal -Pg 17 Line: â€Å"Due to his maniacal sense of discipline, I always thought my father would have made an excellent musician.† (adjective) Definition: A person exhibiting extreme symptoms of wild behavior Sentence: 1. The more drinks the man had he began acting maniacally at the poker table, tossing his chips at other opponents. (adverb) 2. On Fear Factor the man’s maniacal behavior allowed him to go through with apple bobbing in a pit of snakes. (adjective) 3. There were no witnesses to the murder, but nearby neighbors said they heard a maniacal laugh around the same time. (adjective) Plaintive -Pg 24 Line: â€Å"The current hit version of the song was performed by Josà © Feliciano, a blind man whose plaintive voice served the lyrics much better than did Jon Morrison.† (adjective) Definition: Sounding sad or mournful Sentence: 1. She had a plaintive cry when her dog passed away, she grieved for days. (adjective) 2. The musicians plaintively performed â€Å"in the eyes of an angel,† the song from the adopt a dog commercial. (adverb) 3. The cats had a plaintive meow until their liter box was changed. (adjective) Mimeographed -Pg 24 Line: â€Å"Before I left, he handed me half a dozen purple mimeographed handouts, which we both knew were useless.† (adjective) Definition: A duplicating machine that produces copies from a stencil Sentence: 1. I just bought a new mimeograph, it can make copies from a stencil. (noun) 2. The mimeograph has been replaced by newer technology that can also create copies, like ink and laser printers. (noun) 3. My grandfather gave me his old mimeographed flyers, hand pressed around the 60’s. (adjective) Interminable -Pg 32 L... ...ining a pattern in four pairs of dominoes and prophesying what the fifth pair might look like.† (verb) Definition: say that (a specific thing) will happen in the future Sentence: 1. The fortune teller made a prophecy that the woman would win the lotto. (verb) 2. The papers prophesied he would resign in a couple weeks. (verb) 3. Prophesiers make a lot of money off people who believe they can really tell the future. (noun) Corroborated -Pg 241 Line: â€Å"The theory was completely my own, corroborated by no one, but so what?† (verb) Definition: To confirm or support a statement Sentence: 1. Sometimes my teacher is not able to corroborate evidence she teaches us. (verb) 2. Many officers are also corroborators, by giving evidence to support their claims. (noun) 3. I hoped my friend would corroborate my lie to my parents, then i wouldn’t get in trouble. (verb)

Behaviourist Theory for Atypical Behaviour

Behaviourist Theory (10 marks) First of all, behaviourists are psychologists that believe that behaviours are learnt instead of them being natural. Behaviourist theory believes that people learn to be phobic rather than are born phobic. Reason being, many people link their fear of an object or situation to something bad they have experienced. For instance, if someone is scared of needles, it may have been because they had a bad experience with it as a child, thus causing a phobia. This I known as classical conditioning – learning by association; learn to associate a certain response with a certain stimulus.However, even behaviourists do take into account that some behaviour are not learnt, but are instinctive instead. This is called unconditioned response. This contains of instinctive responses such as sexual arousal and anxiety. Unconditioned responses are triggered by unconditioned stimulus. They can be objects or events that naturally cause the reaction such as stimulating genitals might cause arousal or a threat may cause us to be anxious. Yet, sometimes these responses happen in the presence of a neutral stimulus. Neutral stimuli don’t cause a reaction.However we assume it does when we experience something good or bad. For example if a person ate chips and got sick -vomited, they may assume chips cause a bad reaction every single time. This is known as classical conditioning. Therefore each of the neutral stimuli is then described as a conditioned stimulus because they trigger a learnt response. A reaction to a conditioned stimulus is called a conditioned response. Also operant conditioning is a term used by the behaviourist to describe learning by consequences. If the consequences of an action are worthwhile we learn to do them again.Yet if the consequences are not good, we are likely not to do it again. Atypical behaviours are learnt in the same manner as typical behaviours. Atypical behaviours are just more uncommon cases of classical cond itioning. One of the criticisms of this theory is that it ignores the mind and the thinking behind it. For example if we two people got robbed at night, one is likely to think of it as one time incident and forget about it- rational. Whereas the other will think it will happen many times again – irrational. Thus causes to develop a phobia of dark. Different people have different outlook to the event.

Newfood Case

Newfood Case by Adrian Sanchez The correlation between Price and sales is large and negative for all three-time periods. What does this say about how prices Works? The correlation coefficient shows a measure of the linear relationship between these two variables. However, this association does not imply causation, meaning that the change in one variable is not caused by the change of the other one in the opposite direction. Yet, the increasing negative value of the correlation coefficients allows us to infer from these results that when the price rises sales will decrease.This argument is supported by the level of significance of each case less than 0,01. Explain the correlations between advertising and sales. What is happening to the advertising effect over time? Apparently based solely on the correlation numbers the advertising has a negative effect on sales over the time. However when the level of significance is analyzed, it turned evident that these numbers are way greater than the (0. 001) level of significance corresponding with a 99. % confident level. Hence they are not significant and it is safe to conclude that the correlation numbers between advertising and sales have no effect. Note that the inter-correlations between advertising location and prices are all zero. Why? This result support the experiment parameters established from the beginning, we were considering this variables as independents, meaning that there are no linear relationship among them, endorsing the design of the experiment.What do the regressions of sales variables (Sales1, Sales2, Sales3) using P, A and L as independent variables, imply about the effect of prices? Of advertising? Of Location? Effect of Price: As we stated in the question #1 there is a strong correlation between the prince and the sales numbers. An increment in price suggests a decrease in sales. So, based on this result, we may say that the market is price sensitive and the company should take into consideration the price variable when developing the final launch plan of the product. Significance level is below 0. 1 meaning a 99% of confidence level. Effect of Advertising: Due to a high significance level, p-value higher than 0. 01 not accomplishing the 99% or even 95% of confidence level, we may safely state that advertising has no effect on sales. Effect of Location: Due to a high significance level, p-value higher than 0. 01 not accomplishing the 99% or even 95% of confidence level, we may safely state that location has no effect on sales. Rerun adding income and volume. Do your judgments about the effect of price, advertising and location change? Why?When taking into consideration Income and Volume as additional values, my judgment does not change regarding the price and location effect. However, the impact of adding these two variables in the regression model make the advertising variable to become significant, and then having an effect in the actual outcomes of sales. In fact, only th e volume variable affect the advertising significance in this case, income variable is not significant at 99% confident level. After analyzing the correlation chart, we realized that volume & advertising are correlated (negatively).So the regression model fails to predict accurately the effect of advertising on sales. Since we have two â€Å"independent† variables correlated, we need to control for volume and vary the advertising variable in order to get the real effect of this last one on the final outcomes of sales. What additional regression runs if any, should be made to complete the analysis of this data? I would run the regression of the 6 months sales compiled as dependent variable and the others variables as independent (i. e. Price, advertising, location, Income, Volume).I would also dig deeper in the interaction between al the independent variables (Price, advertising, location, income and volume). It is very important to understand the real effect of advertising in this model, for that as aforementioned we need to run model in which volume is controlled in different scenarios checking the behavior on the advertising in order to measure its real effect on sales. If possible obtain an output of residuals. Check the residuals to identify observations that do not seem to fit the model. Why don’t they fit?They do not fit because perfectly because the initial regression model we are using is a linear model. Is very much likely that the relation between the independent variable and the dependent variable change the slope as the number increase or decreasing forming a curve in a YX chart. However the linear approximation seem to be very appropriate after looking after the shape of the data in the chart. Finally each independent variable has a different effect over the dependent variable, which makes the residuals also different, when compare among each other.

Assessing the Quality of Education in the Philippines

The goal of this Article is to ensure that quality education will be vailable to Filipinos from all walks of life in four corners of our country. Why powers and functions of and Dep- Ed does the 3 education bodies put into action their duties and powers for delivering of quality education and holistic development of Filipino students and graduates? Dep-Ed, CHED and TESDA are working hand in hand independently from each other. These three education bodies report directly to the Office of the President. Like what was mentioned above, the three sectors are all mandated to ensure the quality of education in their own respective level. The separation of 3 bodies ensures that there would be the necessary attention, priorities and resources for all levels. Each sector also ensures the readiness of a student to the next level. For example, Dep-Ed needs to make sure that the graduating elementary students are all ready and prepared to handle the programs and curriculum of high school level until they finish high schools. A student who finished high school should be ready to the tasks and programs in college either a bachelor degree or vocational courses. Given that these three educational bodies work accordingly and will be given the mandated resources nd budget, the quality of education in the Philippines would soon be competitive and be affordable to every Filipino child. The education plan on the reform to be initiated by the new president of the Philippines. length of education to global standard which was from 10 years to 12 years. I have two stands on this initiative. First, the idea of aligning the length of education to the global standard would be an effective way of ensuring that our grade school and high school students have the enough time to get the necessary quality of education Time as evolved so fast and it has been said that the only constant in world is change. It could be Just appropriate to align our education duration to global standard to ensure our students would be able to cope with the rapid- changing society. On the other hand, this initiative would only be effective to private schools whose students are fewer than the students in public schools. Also, I do not agree with this initiative as I do not see any problem with the length of education in the Philippines even if it doesnt really follow the global standard. I believed that it is not the length of basic ducation that we need to focus on. Philippines was able to make good and topped student that has excel in many filel and in many countries with the education we have. What we need to focus on are the numbers of classrooms and facilities in public school, strengthening the research for all levels and increasing the numbers of public teachers. We need to focus on the materials and resources we are to give to our education sector and strengthen the existing policy for us all to be effective. Give your stand regarding the criticism on sex education by the Dep- Ed and church? Sex education has been one of the 3 most controversial topic across all corners in the Philippines. For the longest time, sex education has been the discrepancy of parents whether to discuss it with their children or not. I partially agree to the motion of sex education among our students. I guess it would be time for our students to end their curiosity. Sex, whether we like it or not, is a subject we all need to discuss with our kids. We got no choice but to discuss sex with them since this is something that has been abused by many young people. Sex has been abused and has been done because young people were not disciplined and educated to them. It is said in the bible that sex is a gift from God and should only be done by a married couple. It is also said in the bible that God asked us to promulgate. However, it is also mentioned in the bible that once we have promulgate across all over the world then it we need to take the measures to control it. Young people, at the right time and at the right way, needs to be educated with sex. A good curriculum is needed to ensure good education regarding sex to our young people.

Greeks Interaction with other Nations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Greeks Interaction with other Nations - Essay Example He did not have enough written document to assist him in his investigations of the Greek aspects of the War. In ancient Greece history was transmitted orally. He was therefore reduced to gather oral testimony from survivors and descendants of survivors of an era. He was too young to have experienced, but Herodotus had overcome those difficulties." He weighed and carefully sifted the oral accounts of his witnesses, making clear to his audience which among them contained evidence that was probable, Possible".(A. Robertson) The history of the Persian Wars was written with purpose of passion. To him men are only puppets in an all powerful fate. He thus tried to find out the universal truth through human beings. Although he was an Ionian Greek, Herodotus yet believed that Athenian vigor, liberty and democracy. He explained Athens's instrumental role in the defeat of the Persians. "The Athenians were saviors of Greece" and later justified her domination of Greek affairs through her Empire. The Persian Wars lasted for nearly five years (500BC- 479 BC) Herodotus provides information among many other things of the rise of the Persian Empire under Cyrus, the humiliating defeat of proud Croesus and two invasions of Greece by the Persians, the first under Darius turned back at Marathon (490B.C.) With the destruction of the Persian fleet at Salamis, Greece was saved from destruction. Her golden age began. He wanted to preserve the moral lesson embodied in what he saw the victory of Greek liberation from the clutches of Persian autocracy. The Persian Wars provided him the golden opportunity to construct this epic. Herodotus was the first historian to understand the need for a purpose in historical study. He was a true researcher who truly laid his hands on discovering the truth for example, the causes of the Persian War. He tried his best in putting together a long involved historical narrative in which the main theme never been lost. His comparative and constructive study of Greeks and Barbarians led a few scholars to consider him as a friend of the Barbarians. In the opinion of H.E. Barnes, "the frame of Herodotus will endure as the first constructive artist in the field of historical writing as the author of the earliest comprehensive historical work, as the first to imply that the task of the historian is to reconstruct the whole past life of man ... in the entire course of historical writing. He won for history a distinct place in the arts and sciences of mankind for all times." Aeschylus (525-456BC), Greek dramatist born in Eleusis, near Athens, he was the earliest of city's tragic poets. As the predecessor of Sophocles and Euripi dies, he is the founder of Greek Tragedy. "The Persians", presented in 472 BC, is a historical tragedy about the Battle of Salamis, the scene being set in Persia at the court of the mother of King Xerxes I. In the Play it is written that the Greek prevented an invasion by the superior forces of the Persians. More precisely, the play focus is the Persian reaction to their defeat. The Greek's belief on ghost can be seen when Darius appears, and blames his son Oxeyes arrogant pride which had